History of Classical Music: Classical Music in Education

Classical Music in Education

Throughout history, parents have often made sure that their children receive classical music training from a young age. Early experience with music provides the basis for more serious study later. For those who desire to become performers, any musical instrument is practically impossible to learn to play at a professional level if it, or at least a similar instrument, is not learned in childhood. Some parents pursue music lessons for their children for social reasons or in an effort to instill a useful sense of self-discipline. Some consider that a degree of knowledge of important works of classical music is part of a good general education.

The 1990s marked the emergence in the United States of research papers and popular books on the so-called Mozart effect: a temporary, small elevation of scores on certain tests as a result of listening to Mozart. The popularized version of the controversial theory was expressed succinctly by a New York Times music columnist: "researchers have determined that listening to Mozart actually makes you smarter." Promoters marketed CDs claimed to induce the effect. Florida passed a law requiring toddlers in state-run schools to listen to classical music every day, and in 1998 the governor of Georgia budgeted $105,000 a year to provide every child born in Georgia with a tape or CD of classical music. One of the original researchers commented "I don't think it can hurt. I'm all for exposing children to wonderful cultural experiences. But I do think the money could be better spent on music education programs."

Kodály Method

The Kodály Method is founded on a number of different philosophies, including:

1.All people capable of lingual literacy are also capable of musical literacy
2.Singing is the best foundation for musicianship
3.Music education to be most effective must begin with the very young child
4.The folk songs of a child’s own linguistic heritage constitute a musical mother tongue and should therefore be the vehicle for all early instruction
5.Only music of the highest artistic value, both folk and composed, should be used in teaching
6.Music should be at the heart of the curriculum, a core subject used as a basis for education

Mozart effect

The Mozart effect can refer to:

A disputed set of research results that indicate that listening to certain kinds of complex music may induce a short-lived (fifteen minute) improvement on the performance of certain kinds of mental tasks known as "spatio-temporal reasoning;"
Popularized versions of the theory, which suggest that "listening to Mozart makes you smarter", or that early childhood exposure to classical music has a beneficial effect on mental development;
A trademark of Don Campbell, Inc. for a set of commercial recordings and related materials, which are claimed to harness the effect for a variety of purposes. Campbell defines the mark as "an inclusive term signifying the transformational powers of music in health, education, and well-being. It represents the general use of music to reduce stress, depression, or anxiety; induce relaxation or sleep; activate the body; and improve memory or awareness. Innovative and experimental uses of music and sound can improve listening disorders, dyslexia, attention deficit disorder, autism, and other mental and physical disorders and injuries."

The "Mozart effect" is best known to the general public through the work of Don Campbell. His 1997 book, "The Mozart Effect: Tapping the Power of Music to Heal the Body, Strengthen the Mind, and Unlock the Creative Spirit," popularized the theory that listening to Mozart (especially the piano concerti) will temporarily increase your IQ and produce many other beneficial effects on mental function. Campbell and others went on to recommend playing specially selected classical music to infants, in the expectation that it will benefit their mental development. These theories are controversial, though there is a considerable body of evidence showing the relationship of sound and music (both played and listened to) to cognitive function and various physiological metrics.

Before publishing his book, Campbell trademarked the phrase "The Mozart Effect," and later wrote a followup book called "The Mozart Effect For Children", and created related products. Among these are collections of music that are claimed to produce a "Mozart effect," and to focus it for particular activities such as "deep rest and rejuvenation," "intelligence and learning," and "creativity and imagination."

No researchers have claimed such wideranging effects, and even the existence of the far more limited effect claimed by e.g. Shaw and Rauscher (see below) is disputed. Rather, careful research by William Forde Thompson, Glenn Schellenberg, and Gabriela Husain (University of Toronto) suggests that the Mozart effect can be attributed to temporary changes in mood and arousal that result from prolonged exposure to music (e.g., 8-10 minutes). Not all music generates the Mozart effect, however. The music must be perceived as having an energetic and positive emotional quality (see Thompson, Schellenberg, & Husain, 2001, Psychological Science).

History

The concept of the "Mozart effect" was described by French researcher Dr. Alfred Tomatis in his book "Pourquoi Mozart?" 1991, which explored the broad applicability of Mozart in particular in achieving results in Tomatis' thirty years of work with primarily learning disabled children. The phrase first came to US media attention in a 1993 paper by Frances H. Rauscher, a psychologist at the University of Wisconsin, and Gordon Shaw, a physicist at the University of California at Irvine, in a series of papers. The first paper, published in 1993 reported that brief exposure to a Mozart piano sonata produces a temporary increase in spatial reasoning scores, amounting to the equivalent of 8–9 IQ points on the Stanford–Binet IQ scale.

The fact that IQ was mentioned at all, and the fact that the music used in the study was by Mozart, the epitome of high-art music in the educated European tradition, had an obvious appeal to those who value this music, and the "Mozart effect" was widely reported.

New York Times music columnist Alex Ross wrote in 1994, in a light-hearted article, "researchers [Rauscher and Shaw] have determined that listening to Mozart actually makes you smarter," and presented this as the final piece of evidence that Mozart has dethroned Beethoven as "the world's greatest composer."

A 1997 Boston Globe article mentioned some of the Rauscher and Shaw results. It described one study in which three- and four-year-olds who were given eight months of private piano lessons scored 34 percent higher on tests of spatio-temporal reasoning than control groups given computer lessons, singing lessons, and no training.

The popular impact of the theory was demonstrated on January 13, 1998, when Zell Miller, governor of Georgia, announced that his proposed state budget would include $105,000 a year to provide every child born in Georgia with a tape or CD of classical music. Miller stated "No one questions that listening to music at a very early age affects the spatial-temporal reasoning that underlies math and engineering and even chess."

Miller played legislators some of Beethoven's "Ode to Joy" on a tape recorder and asked "Now, don't you feel smarter already?" Miller asked Yoel Levi, music director of the Atlanta Symphony, to compile a collection of classical pieces that should be included. State representative Homer M. DeLoach said "I asked about the possibility of including some Charlie Daniels or something like that, but they said they thought the classical music has a greater positive impact. Having never studied those impacts too much, I guess I'll just have to take their word for that."

The existence of the "Mozart effect" was challenged by two teams of researchers in 1999: Christopher F. Chabris, and Kenneth M. Steele et al. in a pair of papers published together under the title "Prelude or Requiem for the 'Mozart Effect'?"

Chabris stated that his meta-analysis demonstrated "that any cognitive enhancement is small and does not reflect any change in IQ or reasoning ability in general, but instead derives entirely from performance on one specific type of cognitive task and has a simple neuropsychological explanation," called "enjoyment arousal." For example, he cites a study that found that "listening either to Mozart or to a passage from a Stephen King story enhanced subjects’ performance in paper folding and cutting [one of the tests frequently employed by Rauscher and Shaw] but only for those who enjoyed what they heard." Steele et al. found that "listening to Mozart produced a 3-point increase relative to silence in one experiment and a 4-point decrease in the other experiment."

Even if music improves performance in some settings and on some tasks, there is evidence that the effect is not general in the sense that it does not apply in other tasks. Bridget and Cuevas (2000) found that, when compared to a no-music condition, listening to music by Bach or Mozart for 10 minutes produced no effect on subsequent mathematical problem solving performance.

Limitations of the effect

The size, nature, and very existence of the "Mozart effect" are disputed. But assuming that measurable effect of complex music on cognitive function actually can be demonstrated, two limitations or misconceptions should be noted.

First, popular presentations of the "Mozart effect" almost always tie it to "intelligence;" thus, as noted above, Alex Ross's comment that "listening to Mozart actually makes you smarter," and Zell Miller's asking the Georgia legislature whether they "felt smarter" after he played them some Beethoven.

Rauscher herself, one of the original researchers, has disclaimed this idea. In her 1999 reply to Chabris and Steele et al. she wrote (emphasis supplied):

Our results on the effects of listening to Mozart’s Sonata for Two Pianos in D Major K. 448 on spatial–temporal task performance have generated much interest but several misconceptions, many of which are reflected in attempts to replicate the research. The comments by Chabris and Steele et al. echo the most common of these: that listening to Mozart enhances intelligence. We made no such claim. The effect is limited to spatial–temporal tasks involving mental imagery and temporal ordering.
Second, it is frequently suggested or stated that exposure to the right kind of music in childhood has a lasting, beneficial effect. (Circa 1999 the state of Florida created a regulation requiring toddlers in state-run schools to listen to classical music every day).

On programs like these, Rauscher commented in 1999:

I don't think it can hurt. I'm all for exposing children to wonderful cultural experiences. But I do think the money could be better spent on music education programs.

Orff Schulwerk Method

The Orff Schulwerk or Orffschulwerk (or simply the Orff-Approach) is an approach to Music Education for children. It was developed by the German composer Carl Orff (1895-1982), while he was music director of a school of dance and music known as the Günther-Schule, in Munich. He collaborated extensively with Gunild Keetman to fully develop the methodology. The term 'schulwerk' is the German term for schooling or school work, in this regard in the area of music.

The Orff method of music education uses very rudimentary forms of everyday activities in the purpose of music creation by young individuals. This includes singing in groups and performing voice instrumental music, rhymes and playing instruments such as the metallophone, xylophone, glockenspiel, and other percussive instruments. The music generated is largely improvisational and original tonal constructions and this builds a sense of confidence and interest in the process of creative thinking. Children also make music together in a group and hence realize the joys of group co-ordination and cohesion. It also involves the participation of other adults and parents in music making. Thus it brings the role of parent in child education in a central position. When interesting original music has been generated by the groups or individual child, then a desire to record it in written format arises. Thus the need to learn writing a score emerges by itself and the child is intrinsically propelled to learn formal music.

Percussive tonal structures are also an integral aspect of Orff Schulwerk. Orff considered the percussive rhythm as a primitive and basic form of human expression. Much orffschulwerk music is based on simple but forceful variations on rhythmic patterns. This makes for very simple and beautiful musical forms, which are easily learned by young children. However, it can also be used for adults. Thus it is universal in appeal. Orffschulwerk is a system of music education which treats music as a basic system like language and believes that just as every child can learn language without formal instruction so can every child learn music in a gentle and friendly approach.

Suzuki method

The Suzuki method, (sometimes called Talent Education, or the mother-tongue method,) is a way of teaching, or educational philosophy, most often used in learning to play music. The name is also sometimes used to refer solely to the sheet music books and/or audio recordings which have been published as part of the method. It was invented in the mid-20th century by Dr. Shin'ichi Suzuki. Dr. Suzuki noticed that all children pick up their native language very quickly, and even dialects which adults consider "difficult" to learn are spoken with ease by people of 5 or 6 years. He reasoned that if a person has the skill to acquire their mother tongue, then they have the necessary ability to become proficient on a musical instrument. He modeled his method, which he called "Talent Education" (jap. 才能教育 sainō kyōiku), after the process of natural language acquisition. Dr. Suzuki believed that every child, if properly taught, was capable of a high level of musical achievement. He also made it clear that the goal of such musical education was to create generations of children with "noble hearts" (as opposed to creating famous musical prodigies).

The Suzuki method was first developed for the study of the violin but has been adapted for flute, recorder, piano, guitar, cello, viola, bass, organ, harp and voice. In addition, there are a few "Suzuki Preschools" which have adapted Dr. Suzuki's philosophy to use in non-musical disciplines.

Philosophy

"...all children can be well educated..." -Shin'ichi Suzuki-

The central belief of Dr. Suzuki, based on the evidence of universal language acquisition, is that all people can (and will) learn from their environment. Thus, the essential components of the method spring from the desire to create the "right environment" for learning music. These components include:

Saturation in the musical community, including attendance at local concerts, exposure to and friendship with other music students, and listening to music performed by "artists" (professional musicians of high caliber) in the home every day (starting before birth if possible).

Deliberate avoidance of musical aptitude tests or "auditions" to study music (Dr. Suzuki firmly believed that teachers who test for musical aptitude, or teachers who look only for "talented" students, are limiting themselves to people who have already started their music education. Just as every child is expected to learn their native language, Dr. Suzuki expected every child to be able to learn to play music well when they were surrounded with a musical environment from infancy).

Emphasis on playing from a very young age, sometimes beginning formal instruction between the ages of 3 and 5 years old. Scaled down instrument sizes are used for children studying stringed instruments in order to facilitate this. Small (curved headjoint) flutes are also available making it possible for children as young as 3 years old to study the flute through the Suzuki method.

Using well-trained teachers. Suzuki Associations all over the world offer ongoing teacher-training programs to prospective and continuing Suzuki teachers.

In the beginning, learning music by ear is emphasized over reading musical notation. This parallels language acquisition, where a child learns to speak before learning to read. Related to this, memorization of all solo repertoire is expected, even after a student begins to use sheet music as a tool to learn new pieces.
The method also encourages, in addition to individual playing, regular playing in groups (including playing in unison).

Retaining and reviewing every piece of music ever learned on a regular basis, in order to raise technical and musical ability. Review pieces, along with "preview" parts of music a student is yet to learn, are often used in creative ways to take the place of the more traditional etude books. Frequent public performance, so that performing is natural and enjoyable.

The method discourages competitive attitudes between players, and advocates collaboration and mutual encouragement for those of every ability and level. Another important feature of the method is that the parent of the young student is expected to supervise instrument practice every day (instead of leaving the child to practise alone between lessons) and to attend every lesson so as to be able to supervise the practice effectively. It is not necessary for the parent to be able to play as well as the child (or at all); only that the parent knows from the lessons what the child should be doing and how the child should be doing it. This element of the method is so prominent that a newspaper article once dubbed it "The Mom-Centric Method" (Constance Meyer, LA Times, Sept 7, 2003).

Criticism & Response

The most common criticisms of the Suzuki method from more traditional music teachers are that group playing, extensive listening to and copying of recordings, and early focus on memorization lead to:

Compromised sight reading skills
A tendency towards rote learning and 'robotic' group performance at the expense of individual musicianship (although a high degree of early technical ability is thereby produced)
Many Suzuki teachers have addressed these concerns by introducing sight reading exercises earlier and more often than was practiced when the method was first introduced in the West. Some also defend their emphasis on unity of musical expression in group performance by pointing out that this is a necessary skill "just like ... in the string section of any professional symphony", and add that although group performance plays an important motivating and ensemble role, and is a highly visible part of the Suzuki method, solo expression can also be encouraged, and individually tailored lessons are at the heart of the method (Barber, 1991).

Criticism has also sprung up from within the Suzuki movement:

Students may progress too rapidly and find themselves studying repertoire for which they are not yet emotionally prepared.
Baroque music is emphasized in the Suzuki literature to the detriment of other styles and periods.
"Older students can become overly dependent" on the support structure of recordings, parental note-taking and tutoring at home, and teaching styles appropriate for younger students (Barber, 1991).
Very young students, such as those aged 3-5, are often not ready for formal instruction, and too much emphasis on practising hard at this age may be counterproductive (American Suzuki Journal, 2005).

Technique

Although Suzuki was a violinist, the method he founded is not a "school of violin playing" (like the French or the Russian school of playing) whose students are always easily identified by the certain set of techniques they use to play the violin. However, some of the technical concepts Suzuki taught his own students, such as the development of "tonalization", were so essential to his way of teaching that they have been carried over into the entire method.

Tonalization is a term coined by Suzuki, and is deliberately similar to the word "vocalization" (as it is used by singers when they talk about warming up their voices). Tonalization is defined as the student's ability to produce and recognize a beautiful, ringing tone quality on their instrument. While initially developed for violin education, the tonalization technique has been applied to other instruments such as the piano. Suzuki believed that a student must learn tonalization in order to properly reproduce and perform music.

Repertoire

"...If it is true that 'everything in music is preparation' (Gerhart Zimmermann), then the genius of Suzuki is truly expressed in the scope and sequencing of the music...." -Edward Kreitman-

The core Suzuki literature is published on audio recordings and in sheet music books for each instrument, and Suzuki teachers supplement the repertoire common to each instrument as needed. Many traditional (non-Suzuki trained) music teachers also use the Suzuki sheet music books, often to supplement their curriculum, and they adapt the music to their own philosophies of teaching. Suzuki deliberately left out the large amount of technical instructions & excercises found in many beginners' music books of his day.

Violin: compiled and edited by Dr.Suzuki. In ten volumes, beginning with Dr. Suzuki's Variations on "Twinkle Twinkle Little Star" and ending with a Mozart concerto. The first 3 books are mostly graded arrangements of music not originally written for solo violin, although book 1 contains several original compositions by Dr. Suzuki for violin & piano. Books 4-10 continue the graded selection by incorporating 'standard' or 'traditional' student violin solos.

Viola: compiled & edited by Doris Preucil. In seven volumes, the first 3 arranged (or transposed) almost directly from the first 3 violin volumes, and the rest differing significantly as they delve into standard viola literature. Volume eight is set to be released soon.

Cello: Ten volumes, with some early pieces arranged from the early violin volumes.

Piano: Seven volumes

Bass: Three volumes

Flute: compiled & edited by Toshio Takahashi. In fourteen volumes, beginning with Mary Had a Little Lamb and ending in the Flute Concerto by Otaka. Also included are Concerti by Mozart, Cimarosa, Ibert and Quantz. Students also study music by Bach, Handel, Blavet, Fauré and other major composers.

Recorder: Four(?) volumes

Guitar: Seven volumes

Harp: Two volumes. Repertoire for volumes Three and Four are selected, though the music is not published in a single book for each volume.

Voice: Recently developed in Finland (?), the vocal repertoire of the Suzuki method is not yet widespread in other countries, although a Book 1 class is scheduled to be taught in a US teacher training course in the summer of 2006.

Organ: Three volumes
Supplementary materials are also published under the Suzuki name, including piano accompaniment parts, guitar accompaniment parts, duets, trios, and string quartet arrangements of Suzuki repertoire, as well as note-reading books and a few etudes.

Historical Notes

In the late 19th century, Japan's borders were opened to trade with the outside world, and in particular to the importation of Western Culture. As a result of this, Suzuki's father, who had owned a company which manufactured the Shamisen, began to manufacture violins instead.

In his youth, Dr. Suzuki chanced to hear a phonograph recording of Franz Schubert's Ave Maria, as played on violin by Mischa Elman. Gripped by the beauty of the music, he immediately picked up a violin from his father's factory and began to teach himself to play the instrument "by ear." He eventually began to take lessons with a teacher in Tokyo.

Later, Suzuki travelled to Germany to find a violin teacher to continue his studies. While there, he studied with Karl Klingler, and also met and became friends with Albert Einstein, who encouraged him in learning classical music. He also met, courted, and married his wife, Waltraud.

In 1945, Dr. Suzuki began his Talent Education movement in Matsumoto, Japan shortly after the end of World War II. Raising children with "noble hearts" (inspired by great music and diligent study) was one of his primary goals; he believed that people raised and "nurtured by love" in his method would grow up to achieve better things than war.

Eventually, the center of the Suzuki movement in education was established as the Talent Education Research Institute (TERI) in Matsumoto. TERI hosts thousands of people each year -- students, parents, teachers, (and teacher trainees). Other organizations have sprung up all over the world to help oversee the movement and train teachers. These include the Asia Suzuki Association, the Suzuki Association of the Americas, the European Suzuki Association, and the Pan-Pacific Suzuki Association. (Currently, the European Suzuki Association also oversees the beginnings of the Suzuki movement in Africa).

John Kendall of Southern Illinois University Edwardsville brought the Suzuki method, along with adaptations to better fit the requirements of the American classroom, to the United States in the late 1950s and early 1960s. The majority of American Suzuki pedagogues and teaching methods are grounded in the Suzuki-Kendall system. Other pioneers of the Suzuki Method in the US include Roland and Almita Vamos, Elizabeth and Harlow Mills, Louise Behrend, Dorothy Roffman and William Starr.

Source: Wikipedia.org

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